the neurotechnology
THE NEUROTECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Neurotechnology, the application of electronics and engineering to the human nervous system, has now reached a level of commercial and scientific maturity that will produce enormous benefits to patients and profits to investors. Hundreds of thousands of people have already been helped by neurostimulation products that restore hearing to the deaf, movement to the paralyzed, and relief to those with chronic pain or neurological disorders. – Neurotechnology is technology that makes it possible to manipulate the brain. Already one young patient has had a chip embedded in his brain, which allows him to control a computer using his thoughts. Instruments and techniques used in developing neurotechnology include brain imaging systems (MRI, PET, EEG), biochips (DNA microarrays, protein chips, RNA chips), genetic engineering techniques, cellular implantation, and electronic stimulation. Neurotechnology offers hope to sufferers of brain disorders and spinal cord injuries to lead a normal life again. It also has the potential to enhance brain functions in normal people.

DEFINITION
Neurotechnology is the set of tools that influence the human central nervous system, especially the brain, to achieve a desired effect. neurotechnology is defined as the application of electronics and engineering to human nervous system function. It is a distinct field from biotechnology, which concerns itself largely with molecular and genetic engineering approaches to human biology.


The definitions used worldwide by leading researchers, governments, and journals include:

* "Neurotechnology is any technology that makes it possible to manipulate the brain." -The Economist, May 23rd, 2002
* "On the leading edge of neurotechnology is psychopharmacology." -Eric Kandel, Nobel Prize Winner in Medicine, 2000
* "Hardware, software, and wetware that would be used to study the brain or behavior in basic or clinical research." -DHHS, 2001
* "Neurotechnology is how information technology and biotechnology affect the brain." -Baroness Susan Greenfield, UK, 2002

THE CLASSIFICATION
Today’s neurotechnology includes --
pyschopharmaceuticals,
genetic engineering,
psychological conditioning,
physical augmentation,
cellular implantation,
electronic stimulation,
and nano-neuro knitting.



pyschopharmaceuticals

A loosely defined grouping of drugs that have effects on psychological function. Here the psychotropic agents include the antidepressive agents, hallucinogens, and tranquilizing agents (including the antipsychotics and anti-anxiety agents).


genetic engineering,
Genetic engineering is a laboratory technique used by scientists to change the DNA of living organisms.


psychological conditioning
The response in a stimulus-response chain that is not naturally occurring, but rather has been learned through its pairing with a naturally occurring chain.

physical augmentation,
physical augumentation is a technique meant to augument human capacity through technology


cellular implantation
nerve cells cover electrode substrates and try to contact the thus formed local networks by live neurites from the in vivo system.


electronic stimulation
People with stroke or spinal cord injury have reduced control over muscles. Several muscles may be paralyzed and/or spastic (hyper reflexive). Paralyzed muscles may be artificially activated by electrical stimulation (Functional Electrical Stimulation: FES). This may also influence the physiological control and spasticity


nano-neuro knitting.
this technique uses nanotechnology to repair and heal the brain and restore function of a damaged brain region.


THE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUESUSED IN NEUROTECHNOLOGY
brain imaging systems :MRI
PET,
EEG.
biochips :,DNA microarrays
protein chips,
RNA chips. .


MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an imaging technique used primarily in medical settings to produce high quality images of the inside of the human body. MRI is based on the principles of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), a spectroscopic technique used by scientists to obtain microscopic chemical and physical information about molecules. The technique was called magnetic resonance imaging rather than nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI) because of the negative connotations associated with the word nuclear in the late 1970's. MRI started out as a tomographic imaging technique, that is it produced an image of the NMR signal in a thin slice through the human body. MRI has advanced beyond a tomographic imaging technique to a volume imaging technique.

PET
Positron emission tomography, also called PET imaging or a PET scan, is a diagnostic examination that involves the acquisition of physiologic images based on the detection of radiation from the emission of positrons. Positrons are tiny particles emitted from a radioactive substance administered to the patient. The subsequent images of the human body developed with this technique are used to evaluate a variety of diseases.

EEG
An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test to detect abnormalities in the electrical activity of the brain.Brain cells communicate by producing tiny electrical impulses. In an EEG, electrodes are placed on the scalp over multiple areas of the brain to detect and record patterns of electrical activity and check for abnormalities.

A biochip is a small glass or silicon wafer that measures about 1 cm2. Used as an analytical and diagnostic tool, its surface contains proteins or thousands of DNA or RNA fragments. The biochip makes possible the identification of very large numbers of genes (DNA or RNA chips) or proteins (protein chip) in record time. The system is also employed to study the functions of genes and proteins

DNA microarray
A DNA microarray (also commonly known as gene chip, DNA chip, or biochip) is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface, such as glass, plastic or silicon chip forming an array for the purpose of expression profiling, monitoring expression levels for thousands of genes simultaneously.

The affixed DNA segments are known as probes (although some sources will use different nomenclature), thousands of which can be used in a single DNA microarray. Microarray technology evolved from Southern blotting, where fragmented DNA is attached to a substrate and then probed with a known gene or fragment. Measuring gene expression using microarrays is relevant to many areas of biology and medicine, such as studying treatments, disease, and developmental stages. For example, microarrays can be used to identify disease genes by comparing gene expression in disease and normal cells.

protein chips
A protein microarray is a piece of glass on which different molecules of protein have been affixed at separate locations in an ordered manner thus forming a microscopic array. These are used to identify protein-protein interactions,to identify the substrates of protein kinases, or to identify the targets of biologically active small molecules. The most common protein microarray is the antibody microarray, where antibodies are spotted onto the protein chip and are used as capture molecules to detect proteins from cell lysate solutions.

RNA chip
the widespread use of RNA interface has prompted several groups of fabricate RNAi cell microarrays that make possible discrete ,in parallel transfection with thousands of RNAi reagents on a microarrays slide though still a budding technology, promises to increase the efficiency, economy and ease of genome-wide RNAi screens in metazone cells.


conclusion
Just as the Information Revolution has been driven by increasingly powerful microprocessors, the coming Biological Revolution will be driven by a "whole biochip" that enables consistent control over biological analysis and production. This whole biochip will contain currently disparate and still developing technologies, making possible the inexpensive analysis of the three most important levels of biological analysis: DNA, RNA and proteins.

The convergence of information acquired from the whole biochip and advanced brain imaging technology will provide the resolution needed to develop new tools to influence human behavior. By combining data on cellular biochemical processes with information on the specific location of neuron interactions a robust understanding of how the human brain operates will emerge.

This information will represent a profound leap in our understanding of how each individual’s brain works giving rise to a whole new class of what today are referred to as neuropsychopharmaceuticals. Tomorrow these neuroceuticals, as they will be called, will drive societal change.